Vous consultezRecent Demographic Developments in France: Tenth Anniversary of the PACS Civil Partnership, and Over a Million Contracting Parties

AuteursFrance Prioux[*] [*] Institut national d’études démographiques.
Correspondence:...
suitedu même auteur

Magali Mazuy[*] [*] Institut national d’études démographiques.
Correspondence:...
suitedu même auteur

I - Overall population trends and age structure

The population of France at the 2006 census

Based on the final results of the first five-year cycle of annual census surveys, the French statistics office (Institut national de la statistique et des études économiques, INSEE) has made a further upward revision of French population growth between the two most recent censuses (Pla, 2009). Between 1 January 1999 and 1 January 2006, the total population (metropolitan France + overseas départements) increased by 3.1 million, from 60.1 to 63.2 million inhabitants. The natural increase (excess of births over deaths) in this period was 1.78 million, while overall net migration is estimated at 0.62 million. An adjustment of 0.66 million, equivalent to approximately 95,000 extra people for each year between 1999 and 2005, was thus made to restore continuity between the two censuses. Provisional adjustments had already been made following the first annual census surveys (Desplanques and Royer, 2005; Richet-Mastain, 2006 and 2007), but this time they are final adjustments for the period 1999-2005. Each year, the results from a new census based on five consecutive annual surveys (2007 census for the period 2005-2009, 2008 census for 2006-2010, and so on) are used to revise INSEE’s population estimates for the years after 2006, which at present are thus provisional. Future adjustments should be smaller, however, because successive intercensal intervals have shortened considerably, and because no further changes are expected in the methodology.[1] [1] The large adjustment between the censuses of 1999 and 2006...
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2 The adjustment made this year also concerns the population age distribution. The provisional population estimates from 2000 to 2006 were based on the totals by age enumerated in 1999, but the new age distributions also incorporate the totals by age from the 2006 census.[2] [2] See the article by G. Desplanques (2008), which discusses...
suite This leads to a slight adjustment of the structure by broad age group (Table 2)[3] [3] Tables 1 to 16, updated annually, are given in the Appendix. ...
suite and of the various demographic indicators (fertility, marriage, and mortality rates) based on these totals by age.

Stable growth in 2007 and 2008

3 The population of France on 1 January 2009 is estimated at 64.3 million,[4] [4] The population of the overseas départements (DOM) no longer...
suite of whom 62.45 million in metropolitan France (Pla, 2009). In 2008, the population of metropolitan France rose by an estimated 337,000, a figure practically identical to the previous year’s increase of 335,000 (Table 1). This is because the 10,000 extra births and the estimated net gains of 5,000 from international migration were almost entirely cancelled out by an additional 13,000 deaths.

4 At 4.2 per 1,000, the rate of natural increase in France remains among the highest in the European Union (EU). Only in Ireland (10.4 per 1,000) and Malta (5.2 per 1,000) is the rate higher. Together with those two countries, France is one of the few countries where the natural increase equals or exceeds 3 per 1,000, the others being Luxembourg (4.1 per 1,000), United Kingdom (3.5 per 1,000), and the Netherlands (3.0 per 1,000) (Marcu, 2009). Despite a fairly generalized increase in births in 2008 – Germany was the only EU country to register a decline in births – they were still outnumbered by deaths (natural decrease) in eight countries: Bulgaria (–4.3 per 1,000), Hungary (–3.1 per 1,000), Latvia (–3.1 per 1,000), Lithuania (–2.6 per 1,000), Germany (–2.1 per 1,000), Romania (–1.5 per 1,000), Estonia (–0.5 per 1,000), and Italy (–0.1 per 1,000). Of these eight countries, only in Italy did the population continue to grow, thanks to substantial net gains from immigration. In the other seven countries, net migration was either negative (Bulgaria, Latvia, and Lithuania) or too small to offset the natural decrease (Germany, Estonia, Hungary, and Romania). Of the 21 EU countries with net immigration, the net migration rate in France (+1.2 per 1,000) was low compared to the estimated rates for most of the original EU-15 member states (except Germany, where net migration was practically zero in 2008) and to those of three new members which had large net inflows in 2008 (Czech Republic, Slovenia, and Malta: 6-10 per 1,000).

A progressively ageing population structure

5 The final results of the 2006 census have led to a revision of the population age distributions since 2000[5] [5] INSEE now calculates two population age distributions using...
suite and a slight modification in the structure by broad age groups (Pla, 2009) (Table 2). A small downward revision in the percentage aged 20-59 has benefited mainly the 60 and over age group. The relative share of this age group has risen sharply since 2006, as the first baby-boom cohorts turn sixty. The percentages in the older groups (ages 65 and over, and 75 and over) are rising much more slowly; the 1946 birth cohort will not reach age 65 before 2011.

6 The upward trend in births since 1994 has produced a slight broadening at the base of the population pyramid, particularly in the years 2006-2008 (Figure 1). Despite this, however, the percentage of under-20s is still falling by 0.1 point every year, reaching 24.5% on 1 January 2009 in metropolitan France and 24.8% for France as a whole (Pla, 2009; Table 2). Including the population of the DOMs – slightly younger than that of metropolitan France – produces a “younger” distribution by broad age groups, with the percentage of persons aged 65 and over reaching 16.5% (versus 16.7% for metropolitan France).

Population pyramid of France on 1 January 2009

Population pyramid of France on 1 January 2009

7 Beyond age seventy, the population pyramid becomes less symmetrical due to the imbalance of the sexes. At age 85, women outnumber men by more than two to one, and at age 95 by three to one.

8 By comparison with other EU countries,[6] [6] Eurostat website accessed on 04/ 09/ 2009. ...
suite France’s population has a relatively young age structure, at least as concerns the share of under-20s. On 1 January 2008, only Ireland reported a higher percentage (27% versus 24.9% for France as a whole), while the average for all 27 EU countries was considerably lower (21.7%). For the population aged 65 and over, on the other hand, their proportion in France is close to the median, and 14 countries have lower values. Despite this, the total share of the over-65s in the EU countries (17%) is still higher than in France (16.3%), mainly due to the rather high share of this age group in Germany and Italy (20.1% and 20% respectively) whose combined populations make up more than a quarter (28.4%) of the EU total.

II - Foreign immigration[7] [7] The authors thank Xavier Thierry (INED) for supplying the...
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A sharp decrease in 2007

9 The analysis of immigration flows to France is based on statistics of residence permits valid for one year or more issued each year and is therefore limited to foreigners from the countries still subject to a residence permit requirement for settlement in France.[8] [8] Although under-age children can be admitted without a residence...
suite Since 2004, citizens of the European Economic Area (EEA), i.e. the EU Member States plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway, have not been subject to this requirement. An exception concerns foreigners from certain new EU member states[9] [9] All citizens of new Member States are subject to this obligation,...
suite if they are intending to work in France, though this only applies during the early years of EU membership.[10] [10] Since 1 July 2008, foreign nationals from countries that...
suite The enlargement of the European Union in 2004 (10 new Member States) and in 2007 (accession of Bulgaria and Romania) has thus progressively reduced the scope of the immigration statistics, making it harder to evaluate the total number of foreign entrants, which is thus partly based on an estimation (Table 3). Assuming stable flows from countries that belonged to the EEA before 2004, the number of “arrivals”[11] [11] Some foreigners do not obtain their first one-year residence...
suite fell substantially in 2007 (to 192,500, around 11,500 fewer than in 2006), continuing the gradual decline that began in 2004, after the number of permits issued peaked at 215,400 in 2003.
For detailed analysis of recent migration flows to France, only third country (non-EEA) nationals can now be counted. However, to obtain an accurate measure of trends, the same population base must be used for each year. For foreigners coming from third countries as defined since 2007, i.e. crossing the frontiers of the present EU-27, 144,658 residence permits were issued in 2007, 13,062 fewer than in 2006 (–8.3%), following a decline of 3,624 (–2.2%) in 2006 (Table A).

Table A - Residence permits issued to third-country nationals by reasons for admission

Family immigration is declining but remains the largest category

10 The breakdown of residence permits by reasons for admission reveals a clear drop in the number of foreigners admitted on grounds of family ties in France (down by 10,172, or 11.3%). This fall is due equally to fewer admissions of spouses of French citizens and fewer foreigners obtaining a permit on “personal and family life” grounds. The sharp rise in “personal and family life” permits in 2006 reflected the exceptional legalization in that year of undocumented foreigners with children enrolled in school in France, who were issued with this type of permit. Permits issued to spouses of French nationals remained stable in 2006 but declined substantially (–13%) in 2007, due probably to the lengthier procedures for contracting or recognizing binational marriages (between a French and a foreign spouse), a change introduced under new legislation in 2003 for marriages celebrated in France, and in 2006 for those celebrated in French consulates abroad. The number of binational marriages celebrated in France has in fact been falling since 2003 (32,889 in 2008 versus 47,579 in 2003), while the number celebrated abroad and transcribed in the French registers, after growing relatively quickly in recent years, fell for the first time in 2007 (47,869 versus 50,350 in 2006).[12] [12] The figures for foreign marriages transcribed to French...
suite Despite this, marriage to a French national remains, along with studying in France, the main reason for legal immigration, each of these reasons accounting for one-quarter of all residence permits issued in 2007 (Table A).

11 Overall, family immigration still represents the largest category of admissions (55% of permits in 2007), despite a slight decline in its share since 2006 (57%) mainly in favour of student and worker admissions, whose numbers did not fall in 2007. By contrast, there has been a considerable fall in legalizations and in permits issued to retired people. Permits issued to refugees and stateless persons and to ill foreigners have also fallen, though not as abruptly. After returning to equilibrium in 2001-2003, the ratio of women to men has risen again in recent years, standing at 112 women for 100 men in 2007 (107 in 2006). Family immigration remains a largely female phenomenon (136 women for 100 men) although less markedly so for immigrant spouses of French nationals. Labour immigration involves mostly men (44 women for 100 men), while among university students the sexes are in balance. For all reasons for admission combined, the average age of immigrants is 30.6 years for men and 29.7 years for women.
Among the different nationalities admitted for residence in France, Algerians still ranked first in 2007 (24,041), despite a substantial fall in their number (–16%) relative to 2006 (Figure 2). Moroccan entrants remained in second place (numbering 19,017 in 2007, only slightly fewer than in 2006), and Chinese nationals in third place with 10,040 entrants (+2%) ahead of Tunisians (8,832, down 3%) and Turks, whose number fell appreciably (7,170, down 14%). None of the other nationalities topped 4,000 in 2007, and permits issued to Cameroon and US nationals, which numbered 4,228 and 4,011 in 2006, both fell sharply in 2007 (to 3,695 and 3,444, respectively).[13] [13] More detailed data on nationalities are available on the...
suite Despite this context of generalized decline, numbers for some nationalities continue to grow. Those registering the largest increase were Romanians (3,336 admissions in 2007, up 30% on 2006), Poles (2,937, up 34%), Brazilians (2,706, up 13%), and Indians (2,004, up 11%).

Permits issued since 1994 to the nationalities most represented in 2007

Permits issued since 1994 to the nationalities most represented in 2007

III - Fertility

An increase in births and in fertility

12 More than 828,400 births were registered in France (796,000 of them in metropolitan France) in 2008, about 10,000 more than in 2007 (Beaumel et al., 2009a). Births in the DOMs totalled 32,400 in 2008, slightly down on the figure for 2007. The 10,000 extra births thus came solely from metropolitan France, where more than three-quarters of départements recorded higher birth rates.

13 This increase in births is due to the increase in fertility. The average number of children per woman reached an estimated 2.02 in France as whole and 2.0 in metropolitan France (Table 4). If these figures are confirmed,[14] [14] These figures are currently provisional estimates that will...
suite this will be the first time since 1974 that the total fertility rate (TFR) in metropolitan France has reached the symbolic threshold of two children per woman. After falling back slightly in 2007 (from 1.98 children per woman in 2006 to 1.96 in 2007), the upward trend in fertility has resumed, thanks mainly to higher fertility among women aged 30-39.

Children born outside and within marriage: equal in number and in status

14 The proportion of births to unmarried couples continues to climb. The 50% threshold for children born outside marriage was crossed in 2006, and the proportion reached 52.5% in 2008. The proportion of births outside marriage remains below 50% in only seventeen départements, many of which are highly urbanized: the Île-de-France region (minus Seine-et-Marne), Alsace and Moselle, part of Franche-Comté (Doubs and Territoire de Belfort), and five départements of the Rhône-Alpes region (Ain, Loire, Rhône, Isère, and Haute-Savoie). By contrast, percentages over 60% are observed for some départements with a more rural character, a notable instance being the Creuse where two in three mothers are unmarried. The proportion of births outside marriage is particularly high in the DOMs (74.4%), notably in French Guiana (87.9%).

15 In the past, children born outside marriage were referred to as “illegitimate” or as “natural children”, to distinguish them from “legitimate” children born within marriage. But the notion of legitimacy ceased to have a legal basis in France under the ordinance of 4 July 2005 ratified by the Act of 16 January 2009. Henceforth, if the mother’s identity is mentioned on the birth certificate, the maternal filiation is established automatically when the birth is registered, independently of the marital status of the parents. Consequently mothers no longer need to undertake a formal recognition procedure. Prior to this change, however, mothers who did not follow this procedure could still have their maternity established on the basis of “possession of status”. Recognition by the father is still necessary when the parents are not married. Some children are not recognized by their father, though by counting the children born to married parents (for whom paternity is established automatically at birth) and the recognitions registered before and after birth, it is estimated that only 2-3% of children born today do not have paternal filiation (estimate based on research by Munoz-Pérez and Prioux, 2005).

16 Some children are born with no filiation, with neither parent mentioned on their birth certificate, since under French law a mother has the right to remain anonymous when giving birth (Civil Code article 341-1) or when registering the birth (Civil Code article 57) (Munoz-Pérez, 2000). Such children number around 600 each year and represent less than 0.1% of all births. In a minority of cases, the mother changes her mind shortly afterwards and decides to keep her child. In the other cases, the children become orphans in state care and are placed with a family for adoption (Halifax, 2009). Because they are adopted in the first months of life, a filiation is quickly established for these children (Munoz-Perez, 2000). Since the new law of 22 January 2002 reforming access to birth origins, mothers who give birth anonymously can keep their identity secret but leave written information to which the children have a right of access (Act of 22 January 2002 modifying the law on access to origins).

Women aged 25-35 account for two-thirds of births

17 Mean age at childbearing was close to 30 in 2008 (Table 4). The distribution of fertility by age has changed considerably over the last thirty years (Figure 3). At present, it is women aged 25-29 and 30-34 years who account for two-thirds of the TFR, whereas until the late 1970s it was women aged 20-29 years who did so. Most of the remaining one-third of total fertility occurs after 35 years, with women under age 25 contributing only a small share of births. Childbearing under age 20 is rare, accounting for less than 2% of overall fertility in 2008 versus nearly 5% in 1960. Childbearing after age 40 is also uncommon, amounting to less than 4% of total fertility, close to the level recorded fifty years ago. Combining this with the contribution from women aged 35-39 (16%) gives a total of roughly 20%, or one in five, of births in France today that can be described as “late”. Childbearing after age 40 has increased little relative to its level in the 1960s and in the early twentieth century (Toulemon, 2005; Prioux, 2005). It is the “nature” rather than the level of late parenthood that is changing. Late births are now less often additions to large families, but are more frequently only children or children born into reconstituted families (Bessin et al., 2005).

Contribution of each age group* to the total fertility rate since 1960 (%)

Contribution of each age group* to the total fertility rate since 1960 (%)

18 The increase in the total fertility rate since 1995 is due mainly to the increase in fertility among women aged over 27, together with a levelling off since the late 1990s in rates at younger ages, which had been declining since the mid-1960s. The increase in fertility from age 28 since the late 1970s has almost compensated for the fall in fertility rates at younger ages that slowed sharply in the early 1990s (Table 4). The recent uptrend in period fertility is not, however, accompanied by an increase in cohort fertility levels. Completed fertility is falling slightly (Table 5). From a little over 2.1 children among women born between 1950 and 1960, completed fertility falls back to 2 children per woman in the 1969 birth cohort, after which it stops falling and is predicted to stabilize or even recover slightly, depending on the projection scenario adopted.[15] [15] Fertility rates are projected under two scenarios. The first...
suite The TFR currently stands very close to cohort fertility levels, and the mean age at childbearing in 2008 (29.9 years) is similar to that of women born between 1972 and 1974 (depending on the projection).

Persistent but evolving geographical disparities

19 Relatively large geographical variations in fertility exist between départements in metropolitan France (Table 16). Fertility levels in 2006-2007 were lowest in Corsica (1.54 children per woman in Haute-Corse and 1.56 in Corse-du-Sud) and highest in Val-d’Oise (2.32) and Seine-Saint-Denis (2.31). The zones of high and low fertility have shifted over time, with the disappearance of France’s “high-fertility crescent”[16] [16] The crescent-shaped belt of high fertility extending from...
suite (Daguet, 2005; Prioux, 2006). A large zone of high fertility now extends without interruption from Vendée to Aisne, encompassing almost all of the Île-de-France region, except for Paris – where fertility is particularly low – and two départements of the outer Paris suburbs (Figure 4). Conversely, the centre and the south-west (excepting Tarn-et-Garonne), are characterized by low fertility, with indicators commonly under 1.8 children per woman and in some cases down to 1.7 or even lower (in Vienne, Haute-Garonne, Gironde, and Cantal). Fertility in the DOMs is above 2 children per woman, except in Martinique where it has fallen below metropolitan France (1.9 against 2.0).

Total fertility rate in the départements in 2006-2007 (mean number of children per woman)

Total fertility rate in the départements in 2006-2007 (mean number of children per woman)

20 Fertility in northern France thus remains slightly higher than in the south. The urban-rural variable, with the migration of young working adults, probably explains part of the diversity. Young adults abandon the regions that attract them least in terms of employment, while adults who already have jobs and children tend to remain in the more rural areas. In Île-de-France, one of the lowest fertility rates is recorded for Paris intra muros, whereas fertility is high in the Seine-et-Marne and in the outer suburban ring. The constraints of size and cost associated with housing in central Paris are important in explaining why young couples who want to have a family move out to the suburbs.

Fertility among the highest in the European Union

21 With similar fertility levels (Table 6), France and Ireland are still the two most fertile countries in the European Union, followed by those of northern Europe. Fertility remains very low in the southern European countries, as it does in central and eastern Europe where in many countries the total fertility rate stands at 1.4 or 1.5 children per woman. Fertility is currently lowest in Poland (1.23 in 2008) and Poland is also one of the few countries where the period indicator is continuing to decline. In direct contrast, the largest fertility increases in recent years have occurred in the Czech Republic, Lithuania, and Slovenia (at least +0.2 children per woman since 2005).

22 A slightly different picture emerges from a comparison of European fertility levels in the 1970 birth cohort (Table 7[17] [17] These estimates are liable to be revised upward since the...
suite). Ireland and France, followed by northern Europe, still lead the field, but most of the former Eastern bloc countries – and in particular Estonia, Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia – show relatively high completed family size compared with their respective period indicators. This is because the trend towards to later maternity is rapid in these countries, thus exerting a corresponding downward pressure on the annual fertility rates.[18] [18] Assuming completed fertility does not change, a steady increase...
suite The countries where completed fertility is lowest are Italy, Spain, and Germany (between 1.42 and 1.47 children per woman) and the downward trend is continuing.
Despite the general trend to later maternity, mean ages at childbearing in the countries of Eastern Europe are still relatively low (between 25 and 27 depending on the country) compared with those in the EU-15 countries, where mean ages are between 28 and 30 (Table 7).

IV - Abortions

A stable number of abortions

23 The number of induced abortions recorded in hospital statistics for metropolitan France fell back slightly (–2.1%) in 2005 but not in 2006 (Vilain, 2008), when they totalled 209,700, an increase of 3,400 or 1.6% on 2005 (Table 8). For 1,000 women aged 15-49, the number of induced abortions thus climbed back slightly (14.5 per 1,000 in 2006 against 14.2 in 2005), as did the total abortion rate (0.52 per woman in 2006 and 0.51 in 2005). This indicator, which is constructed in the same way as the total fertility rate, does not mean that 52% of women have induced abortions, since some women use the procedure several times in their life. As 25-30% of induced abortions are performed on women who have already aborted, the estimated percentage of women undergoing abortion at least once in their life is 38% (Rossier et al., 2009).

24 In addition to hospital statistics, the notification forms completed for each abortion can be used to analyse abortion in greater detail. Recording of data from the notification forms was suspended for several years but resumed in 2005[19] [19] The complete data sets for 2006 and 2007 are currently being...
suite so that detailed information on women presenting for abortion and on terminations is again available. There is less information than before, however, as the notification form has been greatly simplified.[20] [20] See Rossier et al. (2000) for a description of the differences...
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25 The Act of 4 July 2001 extended the legal limit for abortion from 10 to 12 weeks of gestation, i.e. from 12 to 14 weeks of amenorrhea. This produced only a transient lengthening of the average gestational age at termination (Rossier et al., 2009) because the share of surgical terminations, the only possible procedure at the highest gestational ages, has declined sharply in favour of medical terminations, generally performed around the sixth week of amenorrhea. Abortion at slightly higher than average gestational ages by some women (the youngest, those without a cohabiting partner or who are unemployed) probably reflects their greater difficulty in obtaining an abortion.
Although the proportion of women who present for abortion at least once in their life has been stable since 1990, the share of repeat abortions has gradually increased. The “learning effect” of a first termination seems to have vanished, since the abortion rate is now the same whatever the number of previous abortions (Rossier et al., 2009).

A slight increase in abortions at young ages

26 Abortion rates at the youngest ages have continued to increase (Vilain, 2008). This may be the sign that unplanned pregnancies are becoming more frequent due to less careful contraceptive practice and higher levels of sexual activity among young people, reflecting the fall in the median age at first intercourse (Bozon, 2008). To observe trends in pregnancy, the numbers of induced abortions and births must be combined to estimate age-specific conception rates.[21] [21] Spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) are not recorded and...
suite We do this by moving back births by age (reached in the year) by two-thirds of a year, so they can be counted at the start of pregnancy and added to the number of induced abortions at each age (reached in the year) (Rossier et al., 2009).

27 Table B presents abortion rates by age group (with greater detail for the under-20s), conception rates by age at conception estimated in this way, and the ratio between these two values, which gives an estimate of the proportion of terminated pregnancies by age. This ratio suggests that the rise in abortion rates among women under 18 arises mainly from the growing propensity to terminate a pregnancy at these ages. In 2005, four in five pregnancies were terminated at ages 14-15 and two in three at ages 16-17, compared with two in three and slightly over one in two, respectively, in 1990. The increase in the conception rates at these ages is small and is limited to the 2000s.

Table B - Estimation of induced abortion rates, conception rates by age group (per 1,000 women), and the ratio between induced abortions and conceptions, 1990-2005

28 Conception rates are fairly stable between ages 18 and 30 and even fell at ages 20-24 in the early 1990s, but they rise steadily between ages 30 and 45, the ages at which the propensity to terminate a pregnancy decreases. The overall frequency of conceptions has thus increased, which explains the slight rise in the total abortion rate, whereas the propensity to terminate a pregnancy has on the whole fallen (from 22% to 21%). These changes can be related to those in fertility: the increase in conceptions is reflected in a higher total fertility rate, while the change in age-specific conception rates and termination rates contributes to fertility postponement.

V - Marriage, PACS, and Divorce

A further decline in marriage

29 Following two years of stability, the number of marriages in France resumed its downward course in 2008, with a total of 265,400, almost 8,300 fewer than in 2007 (Beaumel et al., 2009b). The decline was specific to metropolitan France since in the DOMs slightly more marriages were celebrated in 2008 than in 2007 (6,665 versus 6,475).

30 In metropolitan France, the annual number of marriages fell below 260,000 for the first time since 1995 (Table 9). The 3.2% decline in marriages in 2008 concerned binational marriages especially, which fell by 8%, and notably marriages between a French woman and a foreign man, down by 12.3%, and marriages between two foreign nationals, down by 5.7%. Marriages between French persons registered a more moderate fall of 2.3%. Thus the share of binational marriages in all marriages has continued to fall, standing at only 12.7% in 2008 versus 16.8% in 2003.[22] [22] The fall in binational marriages since 2003 is probably...
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31 The proportion of first marriages in total marriages is gradually shrinking for men and women alike, whereas that of remarriages of divorcees is growing. Four out of five persons marrying in 2008 were never-married (79.2% of men and 80.4% of women), a little under one in five were divorcees (19.4% and 18.2% respectively), and a mere 1.4% were widow(er)s. By way of comparison, in 2000, marriages of never-married persons accounted for 81.5% of the total among men and 82.4% among women. The majority of marriages are thus still first marriages, and their relative decline has slowed since the 1980s, due to the continual increase in the “stock” of never-married persons resulting from the fall in nuptiality and the shift to later marriage observed since the 1970s.

32 The decline in marriages in 2008 is reflected in a further decrease in total first marriage rates for both men and women (Table 9). The total rate stood at 49 marriages per 100 men (and 51 per 100 women) in 2008, while the overall probability was 56% for men and 58% for women. This is the first time that the annual probability of marrying for never-married women (overall probability) has fallen below 60%.
In fact, the total first-marriage rate by cohort points to a continued decline in cohort nuptiality (Table 10). Although nuptiality has not yet fallen as low as the period total rates in any of the cohorts for which we have estimated the total marriage frequency before age 50, less than two-thirds of men born in the early 1970s and two-thirds of women born around 1975 will ever marry. Meanwhile, mean age at first marriage continues to rise in successive cohorts. It is estimated at 29.1 years for women born in 1975, and 30.7 years for men born in 1973.

The PACS civil partnership: over a million contracting parties in ten years

33 Since the PACS (pacte civil de solidarité – civil partnership between same- or different-sex partners) was instituted ten years ago (Act of 15 November 1999), French couples can sign a contract defining the organization of their joint life and giving access to certain advantages formerly only available to married couples. However, these advantages are not as extensive as those of marriage, notably with respect to inheritance and filiation.

34 The popularity of the PACS has increased year on year. More than 6,000 PACS contracts were concluded between 15 November and 31 December 1999, 30,000 in 2003, more than 100,000 in 2007 and nearly 150,000 in 2008. This type of civil union has met with substantial success over the ten years of its existence, totalling close to 600,000 PACS and at least one million contracting parties (because the same person may have formed and dissolved several PACS unions in this period). The PACS dissolution rate is reasonably stable, and for heterosexual unions is gradually catching up with the divorce rate (Carrasco, 2007).

35 Since homosexual marriage is not authorized under French law, the PACS enables same-sex couples to obtain legal recognition for their union and to benefit from a more favourable tax regime. But the PACS is also chosen by an increasing number of different-sex partners. Of some 146,000 PACS registered in 2008, 94.4% involved heterosexual couples.[23] [23] A total of 4,780 PACS were between two men (3. 3%) and 3,423...
suite This proportion varies between départements, ranging from 91% in Alpes-Maritimes to 98% in Mayenne. In Paris, however, the proportion of PACS registered by heterosexual couples is distinctly lower, standing at 82.7% versus 17.3% registered by same-sex couples, of which 13.5% are between two men and 3.8% between two women.
Heterosexual couples account for the great majority of PACS unions simply because of the very large stock of unmarried couples available to form a PACS. But although the share of same-sex couples fell slightly from 6.1% in 2007 to 5.6% in 2008, the frequency of PACS unions increased among these couples. Their number rose by 32% between 2007 and 2008, from 6,217 to 8,203, with a slightly larger increase for PACS between two women (+ 36%) than for those between two men (+ 29%). However, without estimates for the number of couples who are neither married nor in a PACS union, and particularly the number of same-sex couples, it is impossible to measure the appeal of the PACS for the different categories of couples potentially concerned by this type of union.

Just over one PACS for two marriages in 2008

36 The number of heterosexual PACS unions is increasing fast and the number of marriages is tending to fall. In 2008, just over one PACS was registered for every two marriages,[24] [24] 265,404 marriages and 146,030 PACS, of which 137,820 were...
suite which means that slightly more than one in three registered unions was a PACS. Making the comparison between PACS and marriage does not mean that these two modes of legalizing a union are mutually exclusive, since a proportion of PACS unions lead on to marriage.[25] [25] 9,610 PACS were dissolved due to marriage in 2008 and 10,781...
suite The comparison is nonetheless instructive since some PACS partners chose this contract precisely because it represents an alternative model to marriage (Rault, 2009).

37 The ratio between PACS and marriage in 2007-2008 shows considerable variability between the French départements, from a minimum of 10 heterosexual PACS per 100 marriages in Martinique, to a maximum of 66 in Haute-Vienne (Figure 4). The lowest values, between 10 and 21 PACS per 100 marriages, are observed in the four DOMs, followed by Seine-Saint-Denis, with 26 per 100. In all the other départements the ratio stands at or above 35 PACS per 100 marriages. At the other end of the scale, ratios above 60 PACS per 100 marriages are found in only five départements (Haute-Vienne, Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Hautes-Pyrénées, Gers, and Puy-de-Dôme). Apart from two zones of adjacent départements, one in the south-west, the other to the east of the Paris region, the départements where the ratio is over 50 PACS per 100 marriages are evenly distributed across France.

Number of heterosexual PACS per 100 marriages, 2007-2008

Number of heterosexual PACS per 100 marriages, 2007-2008

38 In addition to a preference for the PACS, other factors that may explain these differences at département level include the respective proportions of the population already in marital and PACS unions, and the relative size of specific sub-populations with differing propensities to form marital or PACS unions (students, older couples, rural dwellers, foreigners, etc.). Because the status of PACS partners is not identical to that of married partners (notably for foreign nationals[26] [26] Unlike marriage, the PACS confers no entitlement to family...
suite and for persons whose partner has died[27] [27] In the event of death, the remaining PACS partner does not...
suite), certain sub-populations prefer to choose marriage rather than the PACS to obtain legal recognition for their union.

39 While PACS partners tended to have quite specific profiles in the years after the PACS first came into force (gay and lesbian couples, couples seeking alternative forms of union, civil servant couples for whom a PACS union makes it easier for both partners to obtain posts in the same geographical area), its rapid spread will probably lead to a weakening of the regional contrasts. On the other hand, the variations between départements linked to the proportion of young people in the population, which became evident from the first years of the PACS (Belliot, 2005), may persist for several more years yet, since the stocks of potential PACS partners are numerically smaller in the départements with older populations. The same is true in the départements with relatively large numbers of foreign nationals, unless the legislation in this area is changed. Some of the recent increase in PACS unions can probably be attributed to improvements in the tax advantages – notably in 2005, when the income tax regime for PACS partners was brought into line with that for married couples – but it can be assumed that as the PACS gains in popularity and becomes more integrated into the French legal system it will be chosen by ever larger numbers of young couples, irrespective of their sexual orientation, fiscal motives or career mobility strategies.
The PACS is associated with a varied range of “social practices”. While some contracting partners view it as an alternative to marriage, others see it as a step towards marriage at a later date or, in the case of same-sex couples, as a substitute for marriage. The signing of the PACS contract can be the occasion for a “celebration” (publicized or not; possibly with a ceremony to celebrate and announce the union). The symbolism of these practices and the form they take can be identical for same-sex and different-sex couples (Rault, 2009).

A majority of divorces by mutual consent

40 The number of divorces fell slightly in 2008, continuing the downward trend observed since 2005. In all, 132,594 divorces were granted,[28] [28] Direct divorces and conversions of separations. We would...
suite some 1,900 fewer than in 2007 and a fall of 1.4%.

41 The number of divorces in metropolitan France was just under 130,000 for the first time since 2003 (Table 9). After peaking at 52.3 divorces per 100 marriages in 2005, the first year the new Divorce Act of 26 May 2004 came into force,[29] [29] The 2005 peak in divorce arose primarily from the simplification...
suite the total divorce rate has fallen by a few tenths of one percentage point, from 45.5 in 2007 to 45.1. The total rate could therefore stabilize at around 45, substantially higher than its level of 38-39 per 100 marriages in the period 1995-2000.

42 Can the higher frequency of divorce be attributed to the new legislation that unquestionably makes obtaining a divorce easier, even when contested by one of the spouses?[30] [30] Divorce for irretrievable marriage breakdown (which replaced...
suite A recent report by the Ministry of Justice examines the petitions for divorce filed since 1996 and their outcomes in the two years that followed (Chaussebourg et al., 2009). It finds that the increase in divorce petitions occurred a few years before the divorce law reform of 2005 came into force, while their number remained reasonably stable between 2003 and 2006 and then fell back slightly in 2007 and 2008 (Figure 6a). The increase in petitions concerned mainly mutual consent divorce[31] [31] Until 2004 the procedure was known as “joint petition”. ...
suite though also to a lesser extent “contested” divorce, i.e. where the spouses disagree over the effects of the divorce (alimony, child maintenance payments and child custody) or over the actual principle of the divorce. Contested divorces still account for a large majority of total divorces, since they represented 59-60% of petitions filed in 2006, 2007, and 2008, versus 66% in 1996.

Figure 6 Divorce petitions filed and divorces granted by type of proceeding, since 1996

Divorce petitions

Divorce petitions

Divorces granted

Divorces granted

Sources: Chaussebourg et al. (2009), Lermenier and Timbart (2009).

43 A very different picture emerges when we consider divorces granted (Figure 6b). This time, the abrupt increase, within the space of a few years (2003-2005), is limited to mutual consent divorce. The number of contested divorces, by contrast, has tended to fall slightly, and since 2005 they have been outnumbered by uncontested divorces. The large disparity between the numbers of contested petitions filed and of contested divorces granted can be explained largely by the fact that a proportion of the petitions filed do not end in a divorce. This is less often the case with uncontested petitions: the proportion of petitions filed between 1998 and 2004 for which a divorce was granted within two years was 80-84% for mutual consent proceedings, against only 47-52% for contested proceedings (Chaussebourg et al., 2009, p. 46). The other proceedings are either still going through the courts (roughly 20%) or have been settled outside the divorce courts (around 30%).[32] [32] In the judicial nomenclature of the decisions that terminate...
suite Under the new legislation, the procedure for mutual consent divorce was simplified and shortened. Abolition of the compulsory six-month waiting time has resulted in most divorces now being granted at the first hearing, two or three months after the petition is filed, compared with between seven and nine months previously. The frequency of mutual consent divorces granted within two years has thus increased: more than 92% of petitions filed in 2005 had already ended in a divorce before the end of 2007. For contested divorces the opposite has occurred and proceedings have lengthened, with 32% still going through the courts at the end of 2007. In addition, the new legislation makes it possible to switch between types of divorce procedure, so some contested divorces have been changed into mutual consent divorces in the course of proceedings.

44 Taken together, these factors explain why mutual consent divorces represent the majority of divorces granted even though contested divorces are most numerous when the petitions are filed. So the new legislation does not seem to account for the increase in petitions for divorce. But it does help to speed up the outcome when there is agreement between the spouses, as well as encouraging the choice of an uncontested proceeding. In addition, the most conflictual of the contested proceedings are becoming less common and fault-based divorces have declined steadily (Lermenier and Timbart, 2009); they accounted for 38% of divorces granted in 2001, but only 13% of those granted in 2008.
Last, uncontested divorces are increasingly numerous, making up 23% of the total in 2008. Strong growth is also observed in divorces for “irretrievable marriage breakdown”, which represented 9% of the divorces granted in 2008. While in the first procedure the spouses agree over the divorce (though perhaps disagreeing over the post-divorce arrangements), in the second, it is sufficient to prove that the parties have lived apart for at least two years.

Divorce is more frequent in Paris and along the Mediterranean coast

45 The recent frequency of divorces across France can be compared by dividing the average number of divorces in 2006, 2007, and 2008 by the number of people at risk of divorce in each département.[33] [33] Taking the annual averages of newly divorced persons in...
suite Relatively large differences between départements are observed (Table 16). The lowest value for the indicator, 7.5 divorces per 1,000 married persons, is in Lozère, and the highest, at 20.5 per 1,000, or almost triple, is recorded in Paris, which thus has a particularly high risk of divorce, since the next highest levels – 17.2 per 1,000 in Guadeloupe and 16.5 per 1,000 in Bouches-du-Rhône – are appreciably lower.[34] [34] Census declarations may introduce a small bias into the...
suite
Despite the general increase in divorce and a clear convergence in behaviour between the départements with the highest and lowest values, the current regional disparities (Figure 7) are broadly similar to those observed some thirty years ago (see the map of divorces in 1974-1975 in Munoz-Pérez, 1981[35] [35] This study uses the ratio between the average number of...
suite). For example, as in the mid 1970s, divorce is at relatively low levels in the four départements of the southern Massif Central (Cantal, Haute-Loire, Lozère, and Aveyron) as well as in Brittany and in the four neighbouring départements (Manche, Mayenne, Vendée, and Deux-Sèvres). Conversely, of the ten départements where divorce was previously most frequent, six (Alpes-Maritimes, Bouches-du-Rhône, Rhône, Haute-Garonne, Territoire de Belfort, and Vaucluse) still occupy the same position today. A very high rate is also registered for the Île-de-France region, presumably due to the higher incidence of divorce in the population of Paris.[36] [36] Paris could not be treated separately in that study. A change...
suite

Divorce rates (per 1,000)* in the départements in 2006-2007

Divorce rates (per 1,000)* in the départements in 2006-2007

46 The most salient changes since the 1970s are threefold. First, the formation of an unbroken zone of high divorce in the départements bordering the Mediterranean. Second, the virtual disappearance of a zone of high divorce to the north east of the Paris basin (Oise, Aisne, and Marne). And last, the eastward extension of the zone of low divorce centered on Brittany (notably into Maine-et-Loire, Loire-Atlantique, and Sarthe).

47 The relationships identified in the 1970s between the frequency of divorce and, first, urbanization levels, and second, the percentage of children attending private (typically Catholic) elementary and pre-elementary schools (Munoz-Pérez, 1981, pp. 102-108) are still relevant today. Attitudes towards divorce currently seem less influenced by urbanization levels, except perhaps in the most rural and the most urban départements. However, the two zones with the lowest levels of divorce correspond almost exactly to those where private education was the most strongly implanted in the 1970s – the southern Massif Central, and Brittany and its adjacent area. It is known that the strength of religious values is still a factor influencing family behaviour in France (Régnier-Loilier and Prioux, 2009).

VI - Mortality

No improvement in female life expectancy in 2008

48 The number of deaths in 2008 is estimated at 543,500 (of which 534,000 in metropolitan France), an increase of 12,300 on 2007. It corresponds to a rate of 8.5 per 1,000 inhabitants. This increase in deaths is reflected in a small reduction in life expectancy at birth for women – estimated at 84.33 years in 2008, 0.06 years less than in 2007 (84.39 years), while for men it rose by a mere 0.14 years, from 77.38 to 77.52.[37] [37] Provisional data supplied by INSEE (Demographic surveys...
suite The stagnation in female mortality has affected the overseas départements but also metropolitan France, where mean life expectancy for women fell from 84.43 to 84.37 years, while for men it rose from 77.43 to 77.59 years (Table 11). The gender gap in mean life expectancy has thus narrowed to 6.8 years, falling below seven years for the first time. After decreasing steadily from the early 1990s – the difference was still eight years in 1995 – the female mortality advantage stabilized at around seven years as of 2003.

49 This female advantage is due to the male excess mortality observed at all ages and in particular at ages 20-25 (when the probability of dying is three times higher for men than for women) and at ages 50-70 (probability at least 2.2 times higher). The gender gap in life expectancy is 6.6 years at age 20, and 4.9 years at age 60, when life expectancy stands at 26.9 years for women and 22.0 for men (Table 11). Male deaths outnumber female deaths at all ages, but after age 80 – and although men’s probability of dying is still 1.5 times higher – female deaths increase in number due to the dissymmetry in the population pyramid (Figure 1).
Mortality in the first year of life (infant mortality) has been stable since 2005 (Table 11). The infant mortality rate was halved between 1986 and 2003, falling from 8 deaths per 1,000 births to 4 per 1,000, but now seems to have bottomed out at 3.6 per 1,000 births in metropolitan France (Table 13) and 3.8 per 1,000 if the DOMs are included (Pla, 2009). Infant mortality in metropolitan France is generally lower in the centre and west than in the north-east, and is high throughout the DOMs, where the average level is double that of metropolitan France.

Different causes of death at each age

50 Cancers are the main cause of mortality in France (Table 14). The standardized mortality rates (i.e. controlling for differences in age structure) show that cancer became the dominant cause of death for men in the late 1980s and for women in the early 2000s, ahead of cardiovascular diseases. In 2006, cancer mortality represented about one-third of the standardized rate for all ages (34.8% for men and 32.4% for women), while the share of cardiovascular diseases is currently down to one-quarter (24.4% and 25.6% respectively). Next come “other diseases”, many of which are associated with the oldest ages[38] [38] This category includes diseases of the respiratory system...
suite (17.8% and 21.8% respectively), while “injury and poisoning” (accidents, suicides, etc.) rank fourth (9.3% for men and 7.0% for women).

51 Cause-of-death patterns for the period through childhood and adolescence (0-14 years) are highly specific. The most important causes are congenital malformations and early childhood diseases, followed by accidental deaths. Beyond the first year of life, however, mortality is extremely low; it reaches a minimum at ages 9-10, when the risk of dying is below 1 per 10,000. At ages 15-24, injury and poisoning, mostly from road accidents but also from suicide, is the most important cause, responsible for 70% of male deaths and 53% of female deaths (Table C). This group of causes accounts for much of the high male excess mortality at these ages.

Table C - Standardized mortality rates by broad age groups in 2006* (per 100,000) and distribution by causes of death (%)

52 At ages 25-44, injury and poisoning are still the leading causes of death for men (48%): in this age group, the majority of these deaths are suicides but they also include deaths from road accidents and other accidental deaths. Injury and poisoning contribute less (27%) to female mortality at this age, when cancer becomes the single most important cause of death (40%). The dominance of cancer is even more marked (57%) among women aged 45-64 years. At these ages cancer is also the main cause of death among men (48%), although cardiovascular diseases are also a major killer (18%). At ages 65-79, cancer remains predominant (45% for men, 46% for women), ahead of cardiovascular diseases (24% and 25% respectively). Cardiovascular diseases finally become the principal cause of death among persons aged 80 or over (41% of female and 37% of male deaths), while “other diseases”, essentially conditions of the oldest ages, overtake cancers among women.

53 The increasing weight of cancer mortality at some ages, particularly for women, is due to the slow progress in combating this disease compared to advances in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease (Meslé, 2006). In addition, while recent years have seen a favourable trend in male mortality for all cancer sites, this is not the case for women, who face increased mortality from cancer of the lung and the larynx, particularly at ages 45-64. Male cancer mortality nonetheless remains much higher than that of women (after age 45 at least), notably for cancer of the lung and the larynx.
According to the most recent report on cancer in France (INCa, 2009), the geography of cancer mortality (all sites) for 2002-2004 was markedly less favourable in départements located in the north of France, especially for men.

Mortality in the European Union: the east-west divide

54 Based on female life expectancy at birth, the European Union countries where mortality is lowest are France, Spain, and Italy, where women have mean length of life of 84.2 to 84.3 years. This was bettered in Switzerland, with 84.4 years (Table 12). In Eastern Europe, mortality is generally higher and female life expectancy is often below 80 years. The highest mortality levels, with female life expectancies of between 76.5 and 76.9 years, are observed in Latvia, Bulgaria, and Romania. These high-mortality countries are also those where the gender gap is widest, with more than 10 years’ difference between female and male life expectancy in Estonia (11.6 years), Latvia (10.7), and Lithuania (12.4). In six of the new EU member countries – Bulgaria, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, and Romania – male life expectancy at birth is below 70 years. The gender gap is smallest in Denmark, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands, United Kingdom, and Iceland (3.8 years). In terms of overall mortality, France compares favourably with its European neighbour countries, but it counts among the high-mortality countries for certain causes of premature death, notably suicide and alcohol-related deaths (Eurostat, 2009).

55 The observations relative to infant mortality follow a broadly similar pattern. Comparatively low rates, close to that in France, are observed in the countries of Western and Southern Europe (Table 13): Italy (3.7 deaths per 1,000 live births), Spain (3.5), Greece (3.5), Portugal (3.3), Netherlands (3.8), Austria (3.7), Germany (3.5), Belgium (3.4). Infant mortality levels are generally higher in Eastern Europe, notably in Romania (11.0) and Bulgaria (8.6), probably due to the less favourable economic and health conditions in those countries. Note, however, that infant mortality in France is higher than in many European countries, seven of which – Finland, Luxembourg, Czech Republic, Slovenia, Sweden, Iceland, and Norway – record infant mortality below 3 deaths per 1,000 live births. For individual countries, therefore, no direct relationship exists between levels of infant mortality and levels of life expectancy at birth.

Overview

56 Now that the final results of the first five-year cycle of annual census surveys are available, INSEE has made further upward adjustments to French population growth for 1999-2005.

57 The total population of France on 1 January 2009 is estimated at 64.3 million inhabitants, of which 62.45 million in metropolitan France where it increased by an estimated 337,000 in 2008, almost identical to the previous year’s increase of 335,000. At 4.2 per 1,000, the rate of natural increase remains among the highest in the European Union.

58 The number of residence permits issued to foreign nationals from outside the European Economic Area (EEA) fell by 8% in 2007, following a decline of 2% in 2006. Family immigration fell slightly though it remains the single most important reason for legal immigration to France (55%).

59 Fertility rose in 2008. The total fertility rate exceeds an estimated 2 children per woman (2.02) and, according to provisional figures, stands at 2.0 children per woman in metropolitan France, a level not reached since 1974, and thanks to which France still ranks first among the European countries. The fertility increase is due to births to women aged 30 or over. Women aged 25-34 account for two-thirds of total fertility and the mean age at childbearing is close to 30 years. Despite this, completed fertility falls off slightly after the 1960 birth cohort. It is expected to stabilize at around 2 children per woman from the 1970 cohort or thereabouts.

60 The number of induced abortions in metropolitan France remains stable at between 205,000 and 210,000. However, the frequency of abortion is rising slightly among the youngest women, a consequence of the increasing propensity to terminate pregnancies at these ages. There is no decline in the proportion of repeat abortions.

61 The number of marriages fell slightly in 2008 while that of civil unions (PACS) continued to increase, with nearly 150,000 PACS registered in the year. It is estimated that over one million men and women have signed such a contract since 1999, though they may or may not still be in a PACS union. The increase concerns same-sex couples as well as different-sex couples. The geography of the PACS continues to exhibit relatively sharp contrasts. A comparison of PACS and marriages shows that marriage still predominates heavily in some départements while in others the number of PACS unions is catching up with marriage. For France as a whole, just over one heterosexual PACS was concluded for two marriages in 2008, equivalent to just over one PACS for every three unions registered.

62 The number of divorces fell slightly in 2008, by 1,900, continuing the downward trend observed since new legislation came into effect in 2005. The total divorce rate stands at 45.1 divorces per 100 marriages. Mutual consent divorce has become the most widely used procedure since 2005. The highest levels of divorce are in Paris and the départements bordering the Mediterranean, while the lowest are in the southern Massif Central and in Brittany and its adjacent départements.
Male life expectancy at birth improved slightly in 2008, while female life expectancy stagnated. Cancers and cardiovascular diseases are the leading causes of death. Men still have a much higher risk of dying from a cancer of the bronchus or the lung, but female cancer mortality has declined little in recent years due to an appreciable increase in mortality from lung and laryngeal cancer related to the spread of smoking among women. Female life expectancy in France nonetheless remains among the highest in the European Union.

Annexe

Statistical Data

Population change (in thousands) and crude rates (per 1,000)(a)

Table 1 - 

Year Mid-year population Live births Deaths Growth Crude rates (per 1,000) Natural increase Net migration Total Birth rate Death rate Growth Natural incr. Total 1985 55,284 768 552 + 216 + 38 + 254 13.9 10.0 + 3.9 + 4.6 1990 56,735 762 526 + 236 + 80 + 316 13.4 9.3 + 4.1 + 5.6 1995 57,844 730 532 + 198 + 40 + 238 12.6 9.2 + 3.4 + 4.1 2000 59,063 775 531 + 244 + 70 + 314 13.1 9.0 + 4.1 + 5.3 2001 59,477 771 531 + 240 + 85 + 325 13.0 8.9 + 4.0 + 5.5 2002 59,894 762 535 + 226 + 95 + 321 12.7 8.9 + 3.8 + 5.4 2003 60,304 761 552 + 209 + 100 + 309 12.6 9.2 + 3.5 + 5.2 2004 60,735 768 509 + 259 + 105 + 364 12.7 8.4 + 4.3 + 6.0 2005 60,182 774 528 + 247 + 95 + 342 12.7 8.6 + 4.0 + 5.6 2006 61,586 797 516 + 281 + 91 + 372 12.9 8.4 + 4.6 + 6.0 2007* 61,939 786 521 + 265 + 70 + 335 12.7 8.4 + 4.3 + 5.4 2008* 62,275 796 534 + 262 + 75 + 337 12.8 8.6 + 4.2 + 5.4 (a) Population and rates revised after the census surveys 2004-2008. * Provisional. Population: Metropolitan France. Source: INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies.

Age distribution of the population of France on 1 January (%)

Table 2 - 

Age group 1985 1990 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008* 2009* 0-19 29.2 27.8 26.1 25.6 25.4 25.3 25.1 25.1 25.0 24.9 24.7 24.6 24.5 20-59 52.7 53.2 53.8 53.8 53.9 54.1 54.2 54.2 54.1 54.1 53.8 53.4 53.1 60 and over 18.1 19.0 20.1 20.6 20.7 20.6 20.7 20.8 20.9 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.4 including: 65 and over 12.8 13.9 15.0 16.0 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.3 16.4 16.4 16.4 16.5 16.7 75 and over 6.3 6.8 6.1 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.7 7.9 8.1 8.3 8.5 8.7 8.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 * Provisional. Population: Metropolitan France. Source: INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies, series revised after census surveys 2004-2008.

Legal long-term immigration of foreign nationals (adults and minors) from the European Economic Area (EEA) and from countries without freedom of movement rights in Europe

Table 3 - 

Year admitted for residence EEA nationals* Non-EAA nationals Total admissions Adults Minors Total Adults Minors Total 1994 43,885 3,812 47,697 60,272 11,594 71,866 119,563 1995 41,118 3,305 44,423 54,123 7,634 61,757 106,180 1996 40,082 3,176 43,258 55,676 7,052 62,728 105,986 1997 38,485 2,821 41,306 78,620 7,505 86,125 127,431 1998 40,092 2,941 43,033 99,638 13,208 112,846 155,879 1999 40,064 2,727 42,791 89,698 12,631 102,329 145,120 2000 40,325 2,957 43,282 105,263 11,883 117,146 160,428 2001 39,406 3,146 42,552 127,287 12,855 140,142 182,694 2002 39,729 3,015 42,744 148,536 14,427 162,963 205,707 2003 39,012 3,073 42,085 158,504 14,808 173,312 215,397 2004 39,273 3,944 43,217 153,035 15,611 168,646 211,863 2005 39,576 3,298 42,876 151,396 13,291 164,685 207,561 2006 38,466 4,568 43,034 150,983 9,972 160,955 203,989 2007 44,121 3,756 47,877 134,859 9,799 144,658 192,535 * European Union member states + Iceland, Liechtenstein and Norway; enlargement from 14 to 24 countries from 2004; from 24 to 26 from 2007 with the entry of Bulgaria and Romania. Pursuant to the Act of 26 November 2003, foreign nationals of the 14 old EU member states are no longer required to hold a residence permit. A provisional estimate of 40,000 admissions of these EU nationals from 2004 to 2007 was introduced to correct the resulting under-estimation. The 2007 figure will be adjusted using data from the annual census surveys. Sources: First residence permits with a validity of at least one year granted to foreign nationals arriving in France as adults: Ministry of the Interior (AGDREF) (calculated by INED). From 2006, entries of minors are also counted on the basis of data collected by the Ministry of the Interior (and no longer by the ANAEM).

Fertility since 1970

Table 4 - 

Year Sum of age-specific rates Total fertility rate Mean age of childbearing Non-marital fertility 15-27 28 and over All births First births Sum of age-specific rates (per 100 women) Share in total fertility (%) (per 100 women) 1970 143 104 247 27.2 23.9 16 6.4 1975 118 74 193 26.7 24.1 16 8.5 1980 116 78 194 26.8 24.5 22 11.4 1985 99 82 181 27.5 25.2 36 19.6 1990 84 94 178 28.3 26.0 53 30.1 1995 69 102 171 29.0 26.8 65 37.9 2000 69 119 187 29.4 27.4 81 43.2 2001 69 119 188 29.4 – 83 44.3 2002 67 119 186 29.5 27.5 84 44.7 2003 66 121 187 29.5 27.6 86 45.6 2004 67 123 190 29.6 27.7 89 46.8 2005 66 126 192 29.7 27.6 92 47.9 2006 67 131 198 29.8 27.8 98 49.7 2007 65 131 196 29.9 100 50.9 2008* 65 135 200 29.9 103 51.6 * Provisional. Population: Metropolitan France. Sources: INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies, series revised after 2004-2008 census surveys. For mean age at first birth: 1970-1995: calculated by L. Toulemon from the 1999 EHF (Study of Family History) survey data; 2000: estimates derived from registration data; 2002-2006: Annual census survey 2007, calculations by G. Desplanques (2008) minus 0.3 years to offset age over-estimation with this method.

Cohort fertility: cumulative fertility up to selected ages, estimated completed fertility (mean number of children per 100 women), and mean age of childbearing (in years and tenths of years)

Table 5 - 

Birth cohort Cumulative fertility per 100 women (age in completed years) Projection at constant rate* Trend projection** 24 29 34 39 Completed fertility Mean age of childbearing Completed fertility Mean age of childbearing 1930 90 177 231 256 263 27.5 263 27.5 1935 89 181 233 254 258 27.1 258 27.1 1940 96 181 225 238 241 26.4 241 26.4 1945 99 174 206 219 222 26.0 222 26.0 1950 89 154 192 207 211 26.5 211 26.5 1955 77 148 190 208 213 27.0 213 27.0 1960 66 139 184 206 212 27.7 212 27.7 1961 63 135 181 203 209 27.9 209 27.9 1962 60 131 179 202 208 28.1 208 28.1 1963 56 127 176 200 207 28.3 207 28.3 1964 53 122 173 198 205 28.5 205 28.5 1965 49 117 170 196 203 28.7 203 28.7 1966 46 114 168 195 202 28.9 202 28.9 1967 44 111 167 194 202 29.1 202 29.1 1968 42 109 166 193 201 29.2 201 29.2 1969 39 105 163 192 200 29.4 200 29.4 1970 37 103 162 200 29.5 201 29.6 1971 35 100 160 199 29.7 200 29.7 1972 33 98 159 198 29.8 200 29.9 1973 32 97 159 199 29.9 201 30.0 1974 31 96 160 199 29.9 203 30.1 1975 30 96 1976 30 95 1977 31 96 1978 31 95 1979 31 97 1980 31 1981 32 1982 32 1983 31 1984 31 *For the 1930-55 cohorts, observed completed fertility and mean age of childbearing; for later cohorts, unobserved rates are assumed equal to rates observed at the same age in 2008. **For the 1930-55 cohorts, observed completed fertility and mean age of childbearing; for later cohorts, unobserved rates have been estimated by extrapolating the trend of the last 15 years. Population: Metropolitan France. Source: Calculations and estimates based on data from INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies, series revised after 2004-08 census surveys.

Total fertility rates in Europe (total number of children per woman)

Table 6 - 

Year 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 Austria 1.65 1.47 1.46 1.42 1.36 1.40 1.40 1.38 1.41 Belgium 1.68 1.51 1.62 1.56 1.62 – 1.80 1.81 1.82 Bulgaria 2.05 1.97 1.82 1.23 1.26 1.32 1.38 1.42 1.48 Cyprus –(a) – – 2.03 1.64 1.42 1.45 1.39 – Czech Republic 2.10 1.96 1.90 1.28 1.14 1.28 1.33 1.44 1.50 Denmark 1.55 1.45 1.67 1.80 1.78 1.80 1.85 1.84 1.89 Estonia – – 2.05 1.38 1.38 1.50 1.55 1.63 1.66 Finland 1.63 1.65 1.78 1.81 1.73 1.80 1.84 1.83 1.85 France – – – – 1.89 1.94 2.00 1.98 2.02 France (metropolitan) 1.95 1.81 1.78 1.71 1.87 1.92 1.98 1.96 2.00 Germany 1.56 1.37 1.45 1.25 1.38 1.34 1.33 1.37 1.37 Greece 2.23 1.67 1.40 1.31 1.26 1.33 1.40 1.41 1.45 Hungary 1.91 1.85 1.87 1.57 1.32 1.31 1.34 1.32 1.35 Ireland – – 2.11 1.84 1.89 1.86 1.89 2.01 – Italy 1.64 1.42 1.33 1.19 1.26 1.32 1.35 1.37 1.41 Latvia – – – – – 1.31 1.35 1.41 1.45 Lithuania 1.99 2.08 2.03 1.55 1.39 1.27 1.31 1.35 1.47 Luxembourg 1.38 1.38 1.60 1.70 1.76 1.63 1.65 1.61 1.60 Malta – – – – 1.70 1.38 1.39 1.37 1.43 Netherlands 1.60 1.51 1.62 1.53 1.72 1.71 1.72 1.72 1.77 Poland – – 2.06 1.62 1.35 1.24 1.27 1.31 1.23 Portugal 2.25 1.72 1.56 1.41 1.55 1.40 1.36 1.33 1.37 Romania 2.43 2.31 1.83 1.33 1.31 1.32 1.32 1.30 1.35 Slovakia 2.31 2.25 2.09 1.52 1.30 1.25 1.24 1.25 1.33 Slovenia – 1.71 1.46 1.29 1.26 1.26 1.31 1.38 1.46 Spain 2.20 1.64 1.36 1.17 1.23 1.35 1.38 1.40 1.46 Sweden 1.68 1.74 2.13 1.73 1.54 1.77 1.85 1.88 1.91 United Kingdom 1.90 1.79 1.83 1.71 1.64 1.78 1.84 1.90 1.96 Iceland 2.48 1.93 2.30 2.08 2.08 2.05 2.08 2.09 2.14 Norway 1.72 1.68 1.93 1.87 1.85 1.84 1.90 1.90 1.96 Switzerland 1.55 1.52 1.58 1.48 1.50 1.42 1.44 1.46 1.48 (a) Data unavailable. Numbers in italics are provisional estimates. Sources: Eurostat and national statistics.

Cohort fertility in Europe

Table 7 - 

Cohort Completed fertility (per woman) Mean age at childbearing (years) Latest year available(1) 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 Austria 1.74 1.76 1.70 1.66 1.60 25.4 25.9 26.6 27.4 28.1 2006 Belgium(2) 1.84 1.83 1.87 1.80 26.2 26.7 27.4 28.0 1997 Bulgaria 2.05 2.03 1.93 1.81 1.65 24.1 23.9 23.6 23.6 24.5 2007 Czech Rep. 2.11 2.05 2.01 1.92 1.85 24.8 24.4 24.6 24.9 25.9 2007 Denmark 1.93 1.85 1.86 1.89 1.95 26.2 27.1 28.2 29.0 29.6 2006 Estonia 1.97 2.00 2.01 1.87 1.89 26.2 25.9 25.3 25.3 26.2 2007 Finland 1.84 1.90 1.96 1.91 1.86 27.4 28.0 28.7 29.2 29.7 2006 France (metro.) 2.11 2.13 2.12 2.03 2.00 26.5 27.0 27.7 28.7 29.5 2008 Germany 1.69 1.67 1.63 1.52 1.47 25.8 26.5 27.1 28.2 28.8 2006 Greece 2.03 2.03 1.97 1.77 1.57 26.3 25.8 26.2 27.1 28.5 2006 Hungary 1.97 1.96 2.02 1.98 1.87 24.9 24.9 25.0 25.5 26.3 2007 Ireland(2) 3.04 2.67 2.41 2.18 28.6 28.5 29.0 30.1 2004 Italy 1.92 1.82 1.69 1.55 1.42 26.9 27.0 28.0 29.3 30.5 2005 Latvia 1.87 1.84 1.95 1.76 1.63 26.4 26.3 25.5 25.3 25.6 2004 Lithuania 2.04 1.97 1.92 1.72 1.75 26.6 26.3 26.0 26.0 25.9 2007 Luxembourg 1.69 1.68 1.74 1.83 1.83 26.9 27.6 28.6 29.1 29.0 2006 Netherlands 1.90 1.87 1.86 1.78 1.74 27.1 28.2 29.2 30.0 30.5 2006 Poland 2.19 2.17 2.18 2.00 1.79 26.5 26.3 26.0 25.9 26.0 2007 Portugal 2.08 2.03 1.88 1.82 1.66 26.8 26.2 26.5 27.5 28.3 2006 Romania 2.45 2.28 2.16 1.94 1.62 25.1 25.0 24.5 24.2 25.2 2007 Slovakia 2.30 2.21 2.18 2.03 1.89 25.4 25.1 25.0 25.0 25.5 2007 Slovenia 1.90 1.96 1.87 1.79 1.69 25.4 24.8 24.9 25.8 27.1 2007 Spain 2.16 1.92 1.79 1.61 1.45 27.5 27.2 27.9 29.4 30.8 2006 Sweden 2.00 2.03 2.05 2.01 1.96 27.2 27.9 28.6 28.9 29.5 2006 United Kingdom (3) 2.07 2.02 1.98 1.91 1.90 26.4 27.1 27.8 28.4 28.8 2007 Iceland 2.66 2.51 2.47 2.36 2.16 25.0 25.9 26.4 27.1 27.4 2007 Norway 2.10 2.05 2.09 2.08 2.05 26.2 27.1 28.1 28.6 29.0 2006 Switzerland 1.82 1.75 1.71 1.66 1.60 27.1 28.1 28.6 29.4 30.0 2006 Sources : Calculations and estimates based on age-specific fertility rates posted on the Eurostat website, except for France (INSEE data), United Kingdom (ONS data), Estonia, Ireland, Latvia, Poland and Iceland (Demographic Yearbook of the Council of Europe, 2005, plus Eurostat data). (1) Base year for extrapolations. Unobserved rates are assumed equal to observed rates at same ages in latest year of observation. (2) For Belgium and Ireland, data for the 1970 cohort are not available. (3) England-Wales.

Number of induced abortions and annual indices since 1976

Table 8 - 

Year Abortions reported in notifications(1) Abortions recorded in SAE(2) Abortions estimated by INED(3) Abortions per 100 live births(4) Annual abortions per 1000 women aged 15-49(4) Mean number of abortions per woman(4) 1976 134,173 246,000 34.1 20.0 0.67 1981 180,695 245,000 30.4 19.0 0.64 1986 166,797 221,000 28.4 16.0 0.54 1990 170,428 209,000 27.4 14.8 0.49 1991 172,152 206,000 27.1 14.4 0.48 1992 167,777 206,000 27.7 14.3 0.49 1993 166,921 206,000 28.9 14.3 0.49 1994 163,180 207,000 29.1 14.3 0.49 1995 156,181 179,648 207,000 28.4 14.2 0.49 1996 162,792 187,114 207,000 28.2 14.2 0.50 1997 163,985 188,796 207,000 28.5 14.2 0.50 1998 195,960 207,000 28.0 14.2 0.50 1999 196,885 206,000 27.7 14.2 0.51 2000 192,174 206,000 26.6 14.2 0.51 2001 202,180 206,000 26.7 14.3 0.51 2002 137,497 206,596 27.1 14.3 0.51 2003 203,346 26.7 14.1 0.50 2004 210,664 27.4 14.6 0.52 2005 166,985 206,311 26.6 14.3 0.51 2006 174,561 209,699 26.3 14.5 0.52 (1) INED abortion statistics including elective and therapeutic abortions. (2) Hospital statistics (elective abortions only). Source: Vilain (2008). (3) INED estimate of total number of abortions (elective and therapeutic). After 2002, hospital statistics are considered exhaustive and there are no more INED estimates. Source: C. Rossier and C. Pirus (2007). (4) Based on INED estimates up to 2002 and on hospital statistics after 2002. Population: Metropolitan France.

Characteristics of nuptiality and divorce since 1985

Table 9 - 

Year Number of marriages Marriages legitimating offspring (%) Total first marriage rate Number of divorces(3) Total divorce rate per 100 marriages Overall rate(1) Overall probability(2) Men Women Men Women 1985 269,419 11.4 0.53 0.54 0.69 0.73 107,505 30.5 1986 265,678 12.7 0.52 0.53 0.68 0.71 108,380 31.1 1987 265,177 14.4 0.51 0.52 0.67 0.70 106,526 31.0 1988 271,124 15.3 0.52 0.53 0.67 0.71 108,026 31.3 1989 279,900 16.7 0.54 0.55 0.67 0.71 107,357 31.5 1990 287,099 17.3 0.55 0.56 0.68 0.71 107,599 32.1 1991 280,175 18.5 0.54 0.55 0.66 0.70 106,418 33.2 1992 271,427 19.5 0.52 0.53 0.65 0.68 107,994 33.5 1993 255,190 20.7 0.49 0.50 0.62 0.65 110,757 34.8 1994 253,746 21.9 0.48 0.49 0.61 0.64 115,785 36.7 1995 254,651 22.7 0.48 0.50 0.60 0.63 119,189 38.2 1996 280,072 28.1 0.53 0.55 0.64 0.67 117,382 38.0 1997 283,984 28.8 0.54 0.56 0.64 0.67 116,158 38.0 1998 271,361 27.7 0.52 0.54 0.62 0.65 116,349 38.4 1999 286,191 27.5 0.56 0.58 0.64 0.67 116,813 38.9 2000 297,922 29.1 0.58 0.60 0.65 0.68 114,005 38.2 2001 288,255 28.0 0.57 0.59 0.64 0.66 112,631 37.9 2002 279,087 28.1 0.55 0.57 0.62 0.65 115,861 39.2 2003 275,963 28.0 0.55 0.56 0.61 0.64 125,175 42.5 2004 271,598 29.0 0.53 0.55 0.60 0.63 131,335 44.8 2005 276,303 29.8 0.54 0.55 0.60 0.63 152,020 52.3 2006 267,260 0.52 0.53 0.58 0.61 135,910 46.9 2007 260.194 0.51 0.52 0.58 0.60 131,320 45.5 2008 258,749 0.49 0.51 0.56 0.58 129,379 45.1 (1) Ratio of number of first marriages to number of persons of same age, summed to age 49. (2) Ratio of number of first marriages to (estimated) number of never-married persons at the same age, combined to age 49. (3) Direct divorces and separations converted into divorces. Population: Metropolitan France. Sources: INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies; French Ministry of Justice.

Characteristics of nuptiality by birth cohort

Table 10 - 

Male birth cohort Men Proportion ever-married at age 49* Mean age at first marriage* (years) Proportion ever-married At age 24 At age 30 1943 0.88 24.5 0.55 0.81 1948 0.87 24.5 0.56 0.80 1953 0.85 25.0 0.52 0.75 1958 0.79 26.4 0.39 0.64 1963 0.73 28.3 0.23 0.52 1965 0.70 29.0 0.19 0.47 1967 0.68 29.5 0.16 0.44 1969 0.67 30.0 0.12 0.41 1971 0.65 30.5 0.09 0.39 1973 0.64 30.7 0.08 0.37 1975 0.06 0.34 1977 0.06 0.32 1979 0.06 1981 0.05 1983 0.05 Female birth cohort Women Proportion ever-married at age 49* Mean age at first marriage* (years) Proportion ever-married At age 22 At age 28 1945 0.92 22.3 0.59 0.86 1950 0.90 22.6 0.57 0.83 1955 0.87 22.9 0.53 0.77 1960 0.82 24.3 0.42 0.67 1965 0.75 26.3 0.24 0.54 1967 0.73 27.0 0.19 0.50 1969 0.71 27.6 0.15 0.46 1971 0.69 28.2 0.12 0.43 1973 0.67 28.7 0.09 0.40 1975 0.66 29.1 0.07 0.38 1977 0.07 0.36 1979 0.06 0.33 1981 0.06 1983 0.05 1985 0.05 *Unobserved marriage probabilities are assumed to be stable at the average level observed in the last 3 years. Population: Metropolitan France. Source: Calculations and estimates based on INSEE data.

Characteristics of overall mortality since 1985

Table 11 - 

Year Life expectancy (years) Mortality rate (per 1,000 live births) Survivors at age 60 (per 1,000 at birth) At birth At age 60 Male Female Male Female Infant(1) Neonatal(2) Male Female 1985 71.3 79.4 17.9 23.0 8.3 4.6 803 913 1986 71.5 79.7 18.1 23.2 8.0 4.3 807 915 1987 72.1 80.3 18.4 23.7 7.8 4.1 814 918 1988 72.3 80.5 18.7 23.9 7.8 4.1 816 919 1989 72.5 80.6 18.8 24.0 7.5 3.8 818 920 1990 72.8 80.9 19.0 24.2 7.3 3.6 822 923 1991 72.9 81.1 19.2 24.4 7.3 3.5 824 923 1992 73.2 81.4 19.4 24.6 6.8 3.3 827 925 1993 73.3 81.4 19.4 24.6 6.5 3.1 828 924 1994 73.7 81.8 19.7 25.0 5.9 3.2 832 926 1995 73.9 81.9 19.7 24.9 4.9 2.9 836 928 1996 74.1 82.0 19.7 25.0 4.8 3.0 841 929 1997 74.5 82.3 19.9 25.2 4.7 3.0 847 931 1998 74.8 82.4 20.0 25.3 4.6 2.9 850 931 1999 75.0 82.5 20.2 25.3 4.3 2.7 852 932 2000 75.3 82.8 20.4 25.6 4.4 2.8 855 933 2001 75.5 82.9 20.6 25.7 4.5 2.9 855 933 2002 75.8 83.0 20.8 25.8 4.1 2.7 857 934 2003 75.9 82.9 20.8 25.6 4.0 2.6 859 935 2004 76.8 83.9 21.5 26.5 3.9 2.6 868 937 2005 76.8 83.8 21.5 26.4 3.6 2.3 868 939 2006 77.2 84.2 21.8 26.8 3.6 2.3 871 939 2007 77.6 84.5 22.0 26.9 3.6 2.4 874 941 2008* 77.6 84.4 22.0 26.9 3.6 876 940 * Provisional. (1) Deaths under one year per 1,000 live births. (2) Deaths before 28 days per 1,000 live births. Population: Metropolitan France. Source: INSEE, Division of Demographic Surveys and Studies.

Life expectancy at birth in Europe in 2007

Table 12 - 

Life expectancy at birth (years) Male Female Difference (F – M) Austria 77.5 83.1 5.6 Belgium 77.1 82.6 5.5 Bulgaria 69.5 76.7 7.2 Czech Republic 73.8 80.2 6.5 Denmark 76.2 80.6 4.4 Estonia 67.2 78.8 11.6 Finland 76.0 83.1 7.2 France 77.5 84.3 6.8 Germany 77.4 82.7 5.3 Greece 77.1 81.8 4.8 Hungary 69.4 77.8 8.4 Ireland 77.4 82.1 4.7 Italy (2006) 78.5 84.2 5.7 Latvia 65.8 76.5 10.7 Lithuania 64.9 77.2 12.4 Luxembourg 76.7 82.2 5.6 Netherlands 78.1 82.5 4.4 Poland 71.0 79.8 8.8 Portugal 75.9 82.2 6.3 Romania 69.7 76.9 7.2 Slovakia 70.6 78.4 7.8 Slovenia 74.7 82.0 7.4 Spain 77.8 84.3 6.6 Sweden 79.0 83.1 4.1 United Kingdom (2006) 77.3 81.7 4.4 Iceland 79.6 83.4 3.9 Norway 78.3 82.9 4.6 Switzerland 79.5 84.4 4.9 Source: Eurostat.

Infant mortality in Europe (rate per 1,000 live births)

Table 13 - 

1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2006 2007 2008 Austria 14.3 11.2 7.8 5.4 4.8 4.2 3.6 3.7 3.7 Belgium 12.1 9.8 8.0 6.0 4.8 3.7 4.0 4.0 3.4 Bulgaria 20.2 15.4 14.8 14.8 13.3 10.4 9.7 9.2 8.6 Czech Republic 16.9 12.5 10.8 7.7 4.1 3.4 3.3 3.1 2.8 Denmark 8.4 7.9 7.5 5.1 5.3 4.4 3.8 4.0 4.0 Estonia 17.1 14.1 12.3 14.9 8.4 5.4 4.4 5.0 5.0 Finland 7.6 6.3 5.6 3.9 3.8 3.0 2.8 2.7 2.6 France 4.5 3.8 3.8 3.8 3.8 France metro 10.0 8.3 7.3 4.9 4.4 3.6 3.6 3.6 3.6 Germany 12.4 9.1 7.0 5.3 4.4 3.9 3.8 3.9 3.5 Greece 17.9 14.1 9.7 8.1 5.9 3.8 3.7 3.5 3.5 Hungary 23.2 20.4 14.8 10.7 9.2 6.2 5.7 5.9 5.6 Ireland 11.1 8.8 8.2 6.4 6.2 4.0 3.7 3.1 Italy 14.6 10.5 8.2 6.2 4.5 4.2 3.7 3.7 Latvia 15.3 13.0 13.7 18.8 10.4 7.8 7.6 8.7 6.7 Lithuania 14.5 14.2 10.2 12.5 8.6 6.8 6.8 5.9 4.9 Luxembourg 11.5 9.0 7.3 5.5 5.1 2.6 2.5 1.8 1.8 Netherlands 8.6 8.0 7.1 5.5 5.1 4.9 4.4 4.1 3.8 Poland 25.4 22.1 19.4 13.6 8.1 6.4 6.0 6.0 5.6 Portugal 24.2 17.8 11.0 7.5 5.5 3.5 3.3 3.4 3.3 Romania 29.3 25.6 26.9 21.2 18.6 15.0 13.9 12.0 11.0 Slovakia 20.9 16.3 12.0 11.0 8.6 7.2 6.6 6.1 5.9 Slovenia 15.3 13.0 8.4 5.5 4.9 4.1 3.4 2.8 2.1 Spain 12.3 8.9 7.6 5.5 4.4 3.8 3.8 3.7 3.5 Sweden 6.9 6.8 6.0 4.1 3.4 2.4 2.8 2.5 2.5 United Kingdom 13.9 11.1 7.9 6.2 5.6 5.1 4.9 4.8 4.7 Iceland 7.7 5.7 5.9 6.1 3.0 2.3 1.4 2.0 2.5 Norway 8.1 8.5 6.9 4.0 3.8 3.1 3.2 3.1 2.7 Switzerland 9.0 6.7 6.7 5.0 5.3 4.2 4.4 3.9 4.0 Source: Eurostat.

Standardized death rates (per 100,000) by sex and groups of causes of death(a)

Table 14 - 

Cause of death Men 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 23 groups of causes Lung cancer 63 67 70 70 70 69 69 68 66 65 64 63 63 64 63 Stomach cancer 20 17 14 12 11 11 11 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 Cancer of the intestine 31 29 29 28 28 27 27 27 25 25 25 24 24 24 23 Prostate cancer 28 30 32 29 29 29 28 28 26 26 26 26 24 23 22 Other neoplasms 175 179 171 160 159 155 153 149 152 150 147 145 138 138 135 Ischaemic heart diseases 117 118 96 85 84 80 79 77 76 72 70 68 64 62 58 Other heart diseases 130 115 93 90 90 88 85 83 80 78 77 78 71 71 68 Cerebro-vascular diseases 123 103 71 59 58 55 51 50 47 45 43 43 38 37 35 Other diseases of the circulatory system 38 35 29 26 26 25 24 23 21 20 20 19 17 16 16 Tuberculosis (all forms) 5 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 AIDS 0 0 8 13 10 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 Influenza 2 2 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 0 1 1 0 1 0 Other infectious and parasitic diseases 11 12 10 11 11 10 9 9 12 11 12 12 10 11 11 Other diseases of the respiratory system 83 79 71 69 71 70 67 67 53 49 49 52 43 47 42 Alcoholism and cirrhosis of the liver 56 46 35 29 29 28 29 28 28 28 27 27 25 24 24 Diabetes 11 11 9 9 9 9 12 13 15 15 14 15 14 14 13 Other mental disorders and diseases of the nervous system 28 28 31 30 30 31 33 34 40 41 41 44 39 42 41 Other diseases of the digestive system 41 35 29 25 25 25 24 24 20 20 20 20 19 19 19 Other diseases 56 50 40 37 37 36 35 36 36 35 35 36 33 32 31 Motor-vehicle accidents 30 26 26 20 19 19 20 20 19 19 18 15 13 13 12 Suicides 29 34 30 29 28 27 26 25 26 25 25 26 25 24 24 Other deaths from external causes 63 54 51 44 43 42 42 41 36 35 34 36 31 31 31 Unspecified or ill-defined causes of death 74 70 56 48 49 48 50 48 45 49 49 51 44 45 43 6 broad groups of causes Cancer 318 324 317 299 300 298 291 288 280 275 272 267 260 258 251 Cardiovascular diseases 409 371 288 260 258 249 239 233 225 216 210 207 189 186 176 Infectious and parasitic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system 101 97 95 95 93 86 82 81 72 65 66 68 57 61 55 Other diseases 193 169 143 131 130 128 133 135 138 140 138 143 129 131 128 Injuries and poisoning 123 114 106 93 90 89 88 86 81 79 78 77 70 69 67 Unspecified or ill-defined causes of death 74 70 56 48 49 48 50 48 45 49 49 51 44 45 43 All causes 1,217 1,145 1,005 928 918 891 880 866 841 825 813 813 748 751 721 Cause of death Women 1980 1985 1990 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 23 groups of causes Lung cancer 6 7 8 9 10 10 10 11 11 11 12 13 13 14 15 Stomach cancer 9 7 6 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 Cancer of the intestine 19 18 17 16 16 16 16 15 15 14 14 14 14 14 13 Breast cancer 27 28 29 29 29 28 28 28 27 26 26 26 26 25 25 Cancer of the uterus 11 10 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 6 7 6 6 6 Other neoplasms 76 74 70 69 68 67 65 65 67 67 67 66 64 63 62 Ischaemic heart diseases 51 51 42 35 34 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 24 23 22 Other heart diseases 93 81 64 61 60 59 57 56 54 53 53 53 47 47 45 Cerebro-vascular diseases 88 74 52 41 40 39 36 35 33 32 31 31 27 26 25 Other diseases of the circulatory system 19 17 14 12 12 11 11 10 9 9 8 8 7 7 6 Tuberculosis (all forms) 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 AIDS 0 0 1 3 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Influenza 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 Other infectious and parasitic diseases 7 7 6 7 6 6 6 6 8 7 7 8 6 7 6 Other diseases of the respiratory system 33 33 31 30 31 32 30 30 24 21 22 23 19 21 18 Alcoholism and cirrhosis of the liver 19 15 12 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 Diabetes 10 9 8 7 7 7 9 9 10 10 10 10 9 9 8 Other mental disorders and diseases of the nervous system 22 22 24 24 24 25 27 29 32 33 34 37 31 33 33 Other diseases of the digestive system 27 23 18 16 16 16 15 15 13 13 13 13 12 12 11 Other diseases 38 34 29 28 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 29 24 24 24 Motor-vehicle accidents 10 9 9 7 7 6 7 7 6 6 6 4 4 4 3 Suicides 11 12 10 10 10 9 8 9 8 8 9 8 9 8 8 Other violent deaths 36 31 27 23 22 22 22 22 20 19 19 20 17 16 16 Unspecified or ill-defined causes of death 48 44 35 31 31 30 30 30 28 29 30 32 26 27 26 6 broad groups of causes Cancer 147 143 138 134 135 132 130 131 129 129 129 128 126 126 125 Cardiovascular diseases 250 223 172 148 147 141 136 132 126 123 119 119 106 104 99 Infectious and parasitic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system 43 43 42 41 41 40 39 38 34 30 31 33 27 30 26 Other diseases 116 103 91 85 84 85 87 89 91 91 93 98 85 86 84 Injuries and poisoning 57 53 46 40 39 37 38 37 34 34 33 33 29 29 27 Unspecified or ill-defined causes of death 48 44 35 31 31 30 30 30 28 29 30 32 26 27 26 All causes 662 609 525 480 475 465 461 457 442 436 435 443 399 401 386 (a) Standardized rate calculated from mortality rates by five-year age group (in completed years) and from standard European population (according to the structure proposed by the WHO). Thanks to a new analysis of INSERM data, the age groups now have the same definition for all years. The contents of the cause-of-death groups are defined in Table 15 (item numbers refer to ICD-9 for 1980 to 1999 and ICD-10 from 2000). Population: Metropolitan France. Source: F. Meslé on the basis of INSERM data.

Cause-of-death groups and the corresponding items in the international classification of diseases (ninth and tenth revisions)

Table 15 - 

ICD-9 ICD-10 Cancer 140 to 239 C00 to D48 Lung cancer 162 C33 to C34 Stomach cancer 151 C16 Cancer of the intestine 152 to 154 C18 to C21 Breast cancer 174, 175 C50 Cancer of the uterus 179 to 180; 182 C53 to C55 Prostate cancer 185 C61 Other neoplasms 140 to 150; 155 to 161; 163 to 173; 181; C00 to C15; C17; C22 to C32; C37 to C49; 183 to 184; 186 to 239 C51; C52; C56 to C60; C62 to D48 Cardiovascular diseases 390 to 459 I00 to I99 Ischaemic heart diseases 410 to 414 I20 to I25 Other heart diseases 390 to 405; 415 to 429 I00 to I15; I26 to I51 Cerebro-vascular diseases 430 to 438 I60 to I69 Other diseases of the circulatory system 440 to 459 I70 to I99 Infectious and parasitic diseases, diseases of the respiratory system 000 to 139; 460 to 519 A00 to B99; J00 to J98 Tuberculosis (all forms) 010 to 018 A15 to A19; B90 AIDS 042 to 044 B20 to B24 Influenza 487 J10 to J11 Other infectious and parasitic diseases of ICD Chapter I 001 to 009; 020 to 041; 045 to 139 A00 to A09; A20 to B19; B25 to B89; B91 to B99 Other diseases of the respiratory system 460 to 586; 490 to 519 J00 to J06; J12 to J98 Other diseases 240 to 389; 520 to 779 D50 to D89; E00 to H95; K00 to Q99 Alcoholism and cirrhosis of the liver 291; 303; 305.0; 571.0 to.3;.5 F10; K70; K73 to K74 Diabetes 250 E10 to E14 Other mental disorders and diseases of the nervous system 290; 292 to 302; 304; 305.1 to 389 F00 to F09; F11 to H95 Other diseases of the digestive system 520 to 570; 571.4; 571.6 to 579 K00 to K67; K71; K72; K75 to K93 Other diseases 240 to 246; 251 to 289; 580 to 779 D50 to D89; E00 to E07; E15 to E89; L00 to Q99 Injuries and poisoning 800 to 999 V01 to Y89 Motor-vehicle accidents 810 to 819; 826 to 829 V01 to V9 Suicides 950 to 959 X60 to X84 Other deaths from external causes 800 to 807; 820 to 825; 830 to 949; 960 to 999 W00 to X59; X85 to Y89 Unspecified or ill-defined causes of death 780 to 799 R00 to R99 All causes 001 to 999 A00 to R99; V01 to Y89

The départements of metropolitan France

Département indicators

Table 16 - 

n° Département Fertility 2006-2007 (1) PACS and marriages 2007-2008 (2) Divorces 2006-2008 (3) 1 Ain 1.95 38.5 12.3 2 Aisne 2.08 43.2 11.9 3 Allier 1.82 46.7 12.7 4 Alpes-de-Haute-Provence 1.78 42.8 13.4 5 Hautes-Alpes 2.05 52.9 12.9 6 Alpes-Maritimes 1.75 43.6 16.1 7 Ardèche 2.02 47.7 10.3 8 Ardennes 1.98 44.1 9.6 9 Ariège 1.94 44.2 12.1 10 Aube 1.94 38.6 13.2 11 Aude 1.88 47.0 13.7 12 Aveyron 1.91 51.3 8.6 13 Bouches-du-Rhône 1.90 38.9 16.5 14 Calvados 1.92 47.0 11.8 15 Cantal 1.70 48.9 8.3 16 Charente 1.84 42.2 12.1 17 Charente-Maritime 1.78 54.6 12.5 18 Cher 1.87 37.4 9.6 19 Corrèze 1.78 54.5 11.0 2A Corse-du-Sud 1.56 42.3 13.1 2B Haute-Corse 1.54 35.7 12.8 21 Côte-d’Or 1.75 55.5 13.1 22 Côtes-d’Armor 2.13 45.4 9.7 23 Creuse 1.73 36.1 9.6 24 Dordogne 1.82 35.6 11.5 25 Doubs 2.00 53.0 13.3 26 Drôme 2.09 41.9 13.9 27 Eure 2.07 37.0 11.3 28 Eure-et-Loir 2.08 42.5 10.5 29 Finistère 1.93 57.8 9.7 30 Gard 2.01 38.6 14.2 31 Haute-Garonne 1.69 58.6 14.6 32 Gers 1.78 62.5 11.4 33 Gironde 1.70 44.1 14.1 34 Hérault 1.79 50.1 16.2 35 Ille-et-Vilaine 1.92 58.3 9.9 36 Indre 1.85 38.2 11.0 37 Indre-et-Loire 1.78 36.9 11.9 38 Isère 1.96 42.6 12.5 39 Jura 2.04 41.4 12.0 40 Landes 1.91 59.1 11.5 41 Loir-et-Cher 2.04 46.5 11.0 42 Loire 2.04 45.7 11.1 43 Haute-Loire 1.92 48.3 7.8 44 Loire-Atlantique 1.99 46.4 10.7 45 Loiret 2.05 50.9 11.3 46 Lot 1.82 47.9 9.9 47 Lot-et-Garonne 1.91 47.7 13.6 48 Lozère 1.79 43.3 7.5 49 Maine-et-Loire 2.08 45.9 8.9 50 Manche 1.97 49.8 8.8 51 Marne 1.82 53.8 12.0 52 Haute-Marne 1.98 46.4 12.2 53 Mayenne 2.25 43.4 8.3 54 Meurthe-et-Moselle 1.74 52.1 14.1 55 Meuse 2.02 51.6 10.0 56 Morbihan 2.02 49.9 9.0 57 Moselle 1.76 41.2 12.2 58 Nièvre 1.88 41.6 12.1 59 Nord 1.99 36.4 13.8 60 Oise 2.07 36.6 11.5 61 Orne 2.04 40.2 11.0 62 Pas-de-Calais 2.04 47.1 11.6 63 Puy-de-Dôme 1.72 61.6 10.9 64 Pyrénées-Atlantiques 1.71 64.3 11.2 65 Hautes-Pyrénées 1.89 63.3 11.9 66 Pyrénées-Orientales 1.81 39.5 15.7 67 Bas-Rhin 1.72 49.3 10.2 68 Haut-Rhin 1.87 49.1 12.6 69 Rhône 1.99 44.3 15.4 70 Haute-Saône 2.11 44.7 11.3 71 Saône-et-Loire 1.94 48.3 10.5 72 Sarthe 2.07 53.1 10.0 73 Savoie 1.92 53.7 13.8 74 Haute-Savoie 1.87 34.7 12.9 75 Paris 1.60 44.2 20.5 76 Seine-Maritime 1.93 51.1 13.3 77 Seine-et-Marne 2.06 39.7 12.6 78 Yvelines 2.08 43.4 11.6 79 Deux-Sèvres 1.94 44.4 10.0 80 Somme 1.81 45.6 13.1 81 Tarn 1.92 58.4 12.1 82 Tarn-et-Garonne 2.10 43.9 12.9 83 Var 1.95 44.2 15.6 84 Vaucluse 2.03 37.5 14.2 85 Vendée 2.16 39.6 8.3 86 Vienne 1.59 57.2 11.0 87 Haute-Vienne 1.88 65.9 11.4 88 Vosges 1.98 52.6 9.9 89 Yonne 2.02 41.3 12.0 90 Territoire de Belfort 2.05 54.1 14.5 91 Essonne 2.10 43.7 11.3 92 Hauts-de-Seine 1.95 47.6 14.2 93 Seine-Saint-Denis 2.31 25.8 14.1 94 Val-de-Marne 1.92 40.9 13.8 95 Val-d’Oise 2.32 37.5 12.6 971 Guadeloupe 2.46 13.3 17.2 972 Martinique 1.90 10.5 14.1 973 French Guiana 3.36 20.8 13.9 974 Réunion 2.28 18.2 13.1 Metropolitan France 1.91 45.0 12.6 Whole of France 1.93 43.4 12.7 (1) Mean number of children per woman (mean 2006-2007). (2) Number of PACS per 100 marriages (mean 2007-2008). (3) Number of new divorcees per 1,000 married persons in 2006 aged below 70 (mean 2006-2008). Sources: Authors’ calculations based on data from INSEE and the Ministry of Justice.

Bibliographie

References

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Notes

[ *] Institut national d’études démographiques.
Correspondence: France Prioux, Institut national d’études démographiques, 133 boulevard Davout, 75980 Paris Cedex 20, tel.: +33 (0)1 56 06 21 44, e-mail: prioux@ined.fr

[ 1] The large adjustment between the censuses of 1999 and 2006 is explained by the length of the intercensal interval and by differences in methodology (with lower under-enumeration thanks to more highly trained census agents and to the use of the identified buildings register, and probably also more double-counting). On the question of adjustments after each census in France, see Héran and Toulemon (2005).

[ 2] See the article by G. Desplanques (2008), which discusses the possible causes of these differences and the necessary adjustments to the population age distributions.

[ 3] Tables 1 to 16, updated annually, are given in the Appendix. Their number does not always correspond to the order in which they are referred to in the text.

[ 4] The population of the overseas départements (DOM) no longer includes the inhabitants of the islands of Saint-Martin and Saint-Barthélemy, which have had overseas collectivity status since 15 July 2007. Hence they are no longer integral parts of Guadeloupe.

[ 5] INSEE now calculates two population age distributions using different methodologies. One is based on the five-year average of people enumerated at a given age, the other uses the average of the total enumerated in each cohort: www.insee.fr/fr/methodes/sources/pdf/methodologie_Estimations_de_population.pdf

[ 6] Eurostat website accessed on 04/09/2009.

[ 7] The authors thank Xavier Thierry (INED) for supplying the background material for this section.

[ 8] Although under-age children can be admitted without a residence permit they are included in these statistics (and accounted for 7% of total admissions in 2007).

[ 9] All citizens of new Member States are subject to this obligation, except for citizens of Malta and Cyprus.

[ 10] Since 1 July 2008, foreign nationals from countries that have been Member States since 2004 have been exempted from this requirement.

[ 11] Some foreigners do not obtain their first one-year residence permit until after several years of residence in France.

[ 12] The figures for foreign marriages transcribed to French records come from the report to the French Parliament (Rapport au Parlement, 2008).

[ 13] More detailed data on nationalities are available on the INED website at www.ined.fr/en/pop_figures/france/immigration_flow/

[ 14] These figures are currently provisional estimates that will be revised by INSEE in 2010.

[ 15] Fertility rates are projected under two scenarios. The first applies the rates from the last observed year (in this case 2008) to each age for the years of the projection; the second extrapolates the trend of the fifteen previous years.

[ 16] The crescent-shaped belt of high fertility extending from Brittany and Pays-de-la-Loire to Lorraine, taking in the Nord but skirting around the Île-de-France region.

[ 17] These estimates are liable to be revised upward since the method used (keeping the rates from the last year of observation) usually under-estimates fertility at older ages.

[ 18] Assuming completed fertility does not change, a steady increase in age at childbearing produces a proportional shortfall in annual period fertility: an increase of 0.1 years in the mean age per cohort gives a TFR 10% below completed fertility, an increase of 0.2 years per cohort gives a shortfall of 20%, and so on.

[ 19] The complete data sets for 2006 and 2007 are currently being processed.

[ 20] See Rossier et al. (2000) for a description of the differences between the old and new notification forms.

[ 21] Spontaneous abortions (miscarriages) are not recorded and are not considered here.

[ 22] The fall in binational marriages since 2003 is probably a consequence of the new regulations governing marriages of foreign nationals in France (see above, section on foreign immigration).

[ 23] A total of 4,780 PACS were between two men (3.3%) and 3,423 between two women (2.3%).

[ 24] 265,404 marriages and 146,030 PACS, of which 137,820 were between a man and woman.

[ 25] 9,610 PACS were dissolved due to marriage in 2008 and 10,781 in 2007.

[ 26] Unlike marriage, the PACS confers no entitlement to family reunion or to acquisition of French nationality (which in any case is not granted automatically or immediately after marriage).

[ 27] In the event of death, the remaining PACS partner does not receive a survivor’s pension.

[ 28] Direct divorces and conversions of separations. We would like to thank the Ministry of Justice (SDSE-BDSE) for supplying the 2008 data before their publication.

[ 29] The 2005 peak in divorce arose primarily from the simplification of proceedings for divorce by mutual consent (Prioux, 2008; Lermenier and Timbart, 2009).

[ 30] Divorce for irretrievable marriage breakdown (which replaced divorce for breakdown of conjugal life) can be granted after two years’ separation instead of six previously.

[ 31] Until 2004 the procedure was known as “joint petition”.

[ 32] In the judicial nomenclature of the decisions that terminate the proceedings, the three main ones, other than divorce, are petitioner withdrawal, cancellation or expiry of the petition, to which are added dismissal of the petition and the other cases where the court’s competence ceases.

[ 33] Taking the annual averages of newly divorced persons in 2006-2008 and dividing by the number of men and women aged 15-69 reporting as married in the 2006 census, we calculate an indicator that can be likened to an annual risk of divorce per 1,000 married persons in 2006. Since divorce is infrequent among people aged 70 or over, we include only the married population aged under 70 to limit under-estimation of divorce in the départements with large numbers of older residents. The data came from the INSEE website.

[ 34] Census declarations may introduce a small bias into the results and artificially accentuate the disparities between Paris and the other départements if we suppose, for example, that some Parisians with a second home in the country are enumerated in a different département. In the event of divorce, however, they probably apply to the court in Paris.

[ 35] This study uses the ratio between the average number of divorces in 1974 and 1975 and the total number of married women in the 1975 census. The correlation coefficient between the values for 1974-1975 and those for 2006-2008 is 0.8.

[ 36] Paris could not be treated separately in that study. A change made to the territorial jurisdictions of several courts in the Paris region in the early 1970s obliged the study author to aggregate the départements of the Île-de-France region. Working on the seven départements of the Paris region together in 2006-2008, gives a divorce rate of 16.9 divorces per 1,000 married persons.

[ 37] Provisional data supplied by INSEE (Demographic surveys and studies division).

[ 38] This category includes diseases of the respiratory system (bronchitis, emphysema, etc.) and mental disorders (including senile dementia).

Résumé

La population de la France métropolitaine est estimée à 63,2 millions d’habitants au 1er janvier 2009. L’accroissement total est encore largement positif en 2008 et presque identique à celui de l’année 2007, l’augmentation des naissances étant en partie compensée par celle des décès. Le nombre d’étrangers admis à séjourner a diminué en 2007 un peu plus nettement que les deux années précédentes. L’indicateur conjoncturel de fécondité est estimé à 2 enfants par femme en 2008, niveau proche de la descendance finale de la génération 1970. Les avortements sont stables mais leur fréquence augmente légèrement chez les femmes les plus jeunes. Le nombre de pacs signés en 2008 a encore augmenté, pour les couples de même sexe comme pour les couples de sexe différent. Les mariages sont en légère baisse, la probabilité de mariage des célibataires n’ayant jamais été aussi basse. Les divorces prononcés en 2008 sont majoritairement des divorces par consentement mutuel. L’espérance de vie à la naissance des hommes a légèrement augmenté (+ 0,14 an) et celle des femmes n’a pas progressé (– 0,06 an).

PLAN DE L'ARTICLE

• I - Overall population trends and age structure
  • The population of France at the 2006 census
  • Stable growth in 2007 and 2008
  • A progressively ageing population structure
• II - Foreign immigration7
  • A sharp decrease in 2007
  • Family immigration is declining but remains the largest category
• III - Fertility
  • An increase in births and in fertility
  • Children born outside and within marriage: equal in number and in status
  • Women aged 25-35 account for two-thirds of births
  • Persistent but evolving geographical disparities
  • Fertility among the highest in the European Union
• IV - Abortions
  • A stable number of abortions
  • A slight increase in abortions at young ages
• V - Marriage, PACS, and Divorce
  • A further decline in marriage
  • The PACS civil partnership: over a million contracting parties in ten years
  • Just over one PACS for two marriages in 2008
  • A majority of divorces by mutual consent
  • Divorce is more frequent in Paris and along the Mediterranean coast
• VI - Mortality
  • No improvement in female life expectancy in 2008
  • Different causes of death at each age
  • Mortality in the European Union: the east-west divide
• Overview
• Annexe

France Prioux et Magali Mazuy « Recent Demographic Developments in France: Tenth Anniversary of the PACS Civil Partnership, and Over a Million Contracting Parties », Population (English Edition) 3/2009 (Vol. 64), p. 393-442.
URL : www.cairn.info/revue-population-english-2009-3-page-393.htm.
DOI : 10.3917/pope.903.0393.